Rationalism
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This article is about the philosophical method, position, theory, or view. For other uses, see Rationalism (disambiguation).
In epistemology and in its broadest sense, rationalism is "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286). In more technical terms it is a method or a theory "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive" (Bourke 263). Different degrees of emphasis on this method or theory lead to a range of rationalist standpoints, from the moderate position "that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge" to the radical position that reason is "the unique path to knowledge" (Audi 771).
Contents [hide]
1 Background
2 Philosophical usage
3 History of rationalism
3.1 Classical Greek rationalists
3.2 Neoplatonism
3.3 René Descartes (1596–1650)
3.4 Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716)
3.5 Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)
4 References
4.1 Primary sources
4.2 Secondary sources
5 See also
6 External links
[edit] Background
The Western philosophical tradition "begins with the Eleatics, Pythagoreans, and Plato, whose theory of the self-sufficiency of reason became the leitmotif of Neoplatonism and idealism" (Runes 263). Since the Enlightenment, rationalism is usually associated with the introduction of mathematical methods into philosophy, as in Descartes, Leibniz, and Spinoza (Bourke 263). This is commonly called continental rationalism, because it was predominant in the continental schools of Europe, whereas in Britain empiricism dominated.
Rationalism is often contrasted with empiricism. Taken very broadly these views are not mutually exclusive, since a philosopher can be both rationalist and empiricist (Lacey 286–287). Taken to extremes the empiricist view holds that all ideas come to us through experience, either through the five external senses or through such inner sensations as pain and pleasure, and thus that knowledge is essentially based on or derived from experience. At issue is the fundamental source of human knowledge, and the proper techniques for verifying what we think we know (see Epistemology).
Proponents of some varieties of rationalism argue that, starting with foundational basic principles, like the axioms of geometry, one could deductively derive the rest of all possible knowledge. The philosophers who held this view most clearly were Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz, whose attempts to grapple with the epistemological and metaphysical problems raised by Descartes led to a development of the fundamental approach of rationalism. Both Spinoza and Leibniz asserted that, in principle, all knowledge, including scientific knowledge, could be gained through the use of reason alone, though they both observed that this was not possible in practice for human beings except in specific areas such as mathematics. On the other hand, Leibniz admitted that "we are all mere Empirics in three fourths of our actions" (Monadology § 28, cited in Audi 772).
[edit] Philosophical usage
The distinction between rationalists and empiricists was drawn at a later period, and would not have been recognized by the philosophers involved. Also, the distinction was not as clear-cut as is sometimes suggested; for example, the three main rationalists were all committed to the importance of empirical science, and in many respects the empiricists were closer to Descartes in their methods and metaphysical theories than were Spinoza and Leibniz.
[edit] History of rationalism
[edit] Classical Greek rationalists
Socrates (ca 470–399B.C.)
Main article: Socrates
Socrates firmly believed that, before anyone can understand the world, they first need to understand themselves; the only way to accomplish that is with rational thought. In order to understand what this means, one needs first to appreciate the Greek understanding of the world. Man is composed of two parts, a body and a soul. The soul itself has two principal parts, an Irrational part, which is the emotions and desires, and a Rational part, which is our true self. In our everyday experience, the irrational soul is drawn down into the physical body by its desires and merged with it, so that our perception of the world is limited to that delivered by the physical senses. The rational soul is beyond our conscious knowledge, but sometimes communicates via images, dreams, and other means. The task of the philosopher is to refine and eventually extract the irrational soul from its bondage, hence the need for moral development, and then to connect with the rational soul, and so become a complete person, manifesting the higher spiritual essence of the person whilst in the physical. True rationalism is therefore not simply an intellectual process, but a shift in perception and a shift in the qualitative nature of the person. The rational soul perceives the world in a spiritual manner - it sees the Platonic Forms - the essence of what things are. To know the world in this way requires that one first know oneself as a soul, hence the requirement to 'know thyself', i.e. to know who you truly are.
Socrates did not publish or write any of his thoughts, but he was constantly in discussion with others. He would usually start by asking a rhetorical (seemingly answerable) question, to which the other would give an answer. Socrates would then continue to ask questions until all conflicts were resolved, or until the other could do nothing else but admit to not knowing the answer (which was what most of his discussions ended with). Socrates did not claim to know the answers, but that did not take away the ability to critically and rationally approach problems. His goal was to show that ultimately our intellectual approach to the world is flawed, and we need to transcend this in order to obtain a true knowledge of what things are.
[edit] Neoplatonism
Main article: Neoplatonism
Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD, founded by the Egyptian philosopher Plotinus and based on the teachings of Plato and earlier Platonists. Neoplatonists considered themselves simply "Platonists", and the modern distinction is due to the perception that their philosophy contained enough unique interpretations of Plato to make it substantively different from what Plato wrote and believed.
Neoplatonism took definitive shape with the philosopher Plotinus, who claimed to have received his teachings from Ammonius Saccas, a dock worker and philosopher in Alexandria. Plotinus was also influenced by Alexander of Aphrodisias and Numenius. Plotinus's student Porphyry assembled his teachings into the six Enneads.
Subsequent Neoplatonic philosophers included Hypatia of Alexandria, Iamblichus, Proclus, Hierocles of Alexandria, Simplicius of Cilicia, and Damascius, who wrote On First Principles. Born in Damascus, he was the last teacher of Neoplatonism at Athens. Neoplatonism strongly influenced Christian thinkers (such as Augustine of Hippo, Boethius, Pseudo-Dionysius, John Scotus Eriugena, and Bonaventura). Neoplatonism was also present in medieval Islamic and Jewish thinkers such as al-Farabi and Maimonides, and experienced a revival in the Renaissance with the acquisition and translation of Greek and Arabic Neoplatonic texts.
[edit] René Descartes (1596–1650)
Main article: René Descartes
Descartes thought that only knowledge of eternal truths – including the truths of mathematics, and the epistemological and metaphysical foundations of the sciences – could be attained by reason alone; other knowledge, the knowledge of physics, required experience of the world, aided by the scientific method. He also argued that although dreams appear as real as sense experience, these dreams cannot provide persons with knowledge. Also, since conscious sense experience can be the cause of illusions, then sense experience itself can be doubtable. As a result, Descartes deduced that a rational pursuit of truth should doubt every belief about reality. He elaborated these beliefs in such works as Discourse on Method, Meditations on First Philosophy, and Principles of Philosophy. Descartes developed a method to attain truths according to which nothing which cannot be recognised by the intellect (or reason) can be classified as knowledge. These truths are gained "without any sensory experience", according to Descartes. Truths that are attained by reason are to be broken down into elements which intuition can grasp, which, through a purely deductive process, will result in clear truths about reality.
Descartes therefore argued, as a result of his method, that reason alone determined knowledge, and that this could be done independently of the senses. For instance, his famous dictum, cogito ergo sum, is a conclusion reached a priori and not through an inference from experience. This was, for Descartes, an irrefutable principle upon which to ground all forms of other knowledge. Descartes posited a metaphysical dualism, distinguishing between the substances of the human body ("res extensa") and the mind or soul ("res cogitans") . This crucial distinction would be left unresolved and lead to what is known as the mind-body problem, since the two substances in the Cartesian system are independent of each other and irreducible.
[edit] Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716)
Main article: Gottfried Leibniz
Leibniz was the last of the great Rationalists, who contributed heavily to other fields such as mathematics. His system however was not developed independently of these advances. Leibniz rejected Cartesian dualism, and denied the existence of a material world. In Leibniz's view there are infinitely many simple substances, which he called "monads" (possibly taking the term from the work of Anne Conway).
Leibniz developed his theory of monads in response to both Descartes and Spinoza. In rejecting this response he was forced to arrive at his own solution. Monads are the fundamental unit of reality, according to Leibniz, constituting both inanimate and animate things. These units of reality represent the universe, though they are not subject to the laws of causality or space (which he called "well-founded phenomena"). Leibniz therefore introduced his principle of pre-established harmony, in order to account for apparent causality in the world.
[edit] Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)
Main article: Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant started as a traditional rationalist, having studied the rationalists Leibniz and Wolff, but after studying David Hume's works, which "awoke [him] from [his] dogmatic slumbers", he developed a distinctive and very influential rationalism of his own which attempted to synthesise the traditional rationalist and empiricist traditions.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism理性主义
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关於理性主义建筑，详见「功能主义建筑」。
理性主义、欧洲理性主义是建立在承认人的推理可以作为知识来源的理论基础上的一种哲学方法。一般认为随着笛卡儿的理论而产生，17-18世纪间主要在欧洲大陆上得以传播。同时代相对的另一种哲学方法被称为不列颠经验主义（经验主义中的的一派），它认为人类的想法来源于经验，所以知识可能除了数学以外主要来源于经验。这里主要关注的是人类的知识来源以及证实我们所知的一种手段。
理性主义者及经验主义者的区别在当时并没有被哲学家予以区分，而是后代进行了区分。事实上，有时两者之间的区分并不像人们所说的那么显著。三位主要的理性主义者都认同经验科学的重要性，并且他们在研究方法及形而上学的理论上更接近笛卡儿而不是斯宾诺莎（Baruch Spinoza）和莱布尼兹（Gottfried Leibnitz）。尽管这种区分在著书立作时很有必要，他们在哲学本身来说不是非常有用。
典型的理性主义者认为，人类首先本能地掌握一些基本原则，如几何法则，随后可以依据这些推理出其余知识。最典型的持这种观点的是斯宾诺莎及莱布尼兹，在他们试图解决由笛卡儿提出的认知及形而上学问题的过程中，他们使理性主义的基本方法得以发展。斯宾诺莎及莱布尼兹都认为原则上所有知识（包括科学知识）可以通过单纯的推理得到，另一方面他们也承认现实中除了数学之外人类不能做到单纯用推理得到别的知识。
笛卡儿的理论相对来说更接近柏拉图，他认为只有一些永恒真理（包括数学以及科学的认知及形而上学基础）可以单纯靠推理得到，其余的知识需要借助生活经验以及必要的科学手段。更准确地说笛卡儿是一位重视形而上学的理性主义者，是一位重视科学的经验主义者。
康德开始时是一位理性主义者,但是经过休谟（David Hume）的“将他从沉睡中唤醒”的著作的熏陶，他成了理性主义者以及经验主义者的综合体。
现在“理性主义者”表达一种人类行为应该由理性所支配的观点（这种观点被欧洲理性主义者以及类似的经验主义者所认同）。
目录 [隐藏]
1 哲学的用法
2 唯理主义者
2.1 苏格拉底
3 外部连结
[编辑] 哲学的用法
区别在唯理主义者和经验主义者之间在一后时期拉，并且不将有关哲学家认出。此外，有时区别并不明确；例如，3名主要唯理主义者全部保证经验学的重要性， 与是斯宾诺莎和莱布尼兹相比，并且在许多方面那些经验主义者用他们的方法和形而上学的理论更接近於笛卡儿。
[编辑] 唯理主义者
[编辑] 苏格拉底
主条目：苏格拉底
苏格拉底（Socrates）坚定相信任何人能理解世界，他们第一个需要理解自己。并且完成那的唯一的模式是用合理的想法。苏格拉底没出版或者写他的任何想法，但是他与其他人在讨论过程中经常。他通常透过问一（好像有责任）开始 问题，另一个将给一个答案。苏格拉底於是将继续问问题，直到全部冲突被解决，或者直到另一个能做正是承认他不知道答案（哪个是他的大多数讨论以结束的）。苏格拉底没声称知道答案，但是关键地并且合理地接近问题的能力并不因此而被带走。
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89